In 2003, the Energy Strategy of Russia program was developed, which for the period up to 2020 provided for highly efficient electricity production, cost-effective systems for its transmission, distribution and use.
Developed in 2010 by the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation and JSC SO UES "Program for the modernization of the Russian electric power industry for the period up to 2030" has the following main goals:
a) cardinal renewal of the electric power industry based on domestic and world experience;
b) overcoming the growing technological backwardness;
c) moral and physical aging of fixed assets;
d) increasing the reliability of power supply;
e) increasing the country's energy security;
f) reduction of tariffs for electricity and heat.
The Program provides for the creation of an effective control system for the operation of the Russian electric power industry, based on new promising technologies for managing the production, transmission and distribution of electricity, the creation of technological intelligent electric power systems and new energy technologies based on, for example:
Distributed generation of electricity using renewable energy sources;
New conductors for power lines and energy storage;
Direct conversion of solar energy;
Circulating fluidized bed boilers.
The solution of these tasks should be combined with an in-depth analysis of the development, functioning, stability and reliability of the Unified Energy System of Russia, its links with the electric power systems of other countries, primarily the CIS countries.
The strategic goals for the development of the domestic electric power industry in the future until 2030 include the solution of the problem of energy security, as the most important component of the state energy policy, which is part of national security of Russia. At the same time, the development of the electric power industry should ensure:
Guarantee of reliable power supply of enterprises and population of the country with electricity;
Increasing the efficiency of energy resources use through the use of energy-saving technologies;
Improving the efficiency of the Russian energy system;
Creation and preservation of the integrity of the Unified Energy System throughout the territory of Russia with the strengthening of its integration with other energy associations on the Eurasian continent;
Reducing the harmful impact of the energy industry on the environment.
The programme's targets include the following key baseline expected performance indicators:
1. Reduction of specific fuel consumption for electricity supply from TPPs from 332.7 to 300 standard fuel. / (kWh) in 2020 and up to 270 c.f. / (kWh) in 2030
2. Reduction of electricity losses in the Unified National Electric Grid from 4.6 to 3.5% in 2020 and to 3% in 2030.
3. Reduction of electricity losses in distribution electric networks from 8.9 to 6.5% in 2020 and 5% in 2030.
The results of the studies performed on the optimal development of generating capacities revealed that the main part of the commissioning of generating capacities should be carried out at TPPs (from 70 to 180 million kW, depending on the level of electricity consumption) in areas that need new generating capacities.
The main direction of the technical re-equipment and reconstruction of thermal power plants is the replacement of power plants that deplete their resource with new advanced, highly efficient technologies and equipment, which is located in the existing or new main buildings at the same sites. Combined cycle units are used at thermal gas power plants, and circulating fluidized bed units at thermal coal power plants. In the distant future, coal-based combined cycle technologies will be used with coal pre-gasification or combustion in boilers equipped with pressure fluidized bed furnaces.
The commissioning of generating capacities at HPPs and NPPs turns out to be insignificant in comparison with those at TPPs, which is associated with significant capital costs for their construction and a long construction period. Therefore, the main directions for the development of hydropower in Russia, for example, until 2015, are to ensure the reconstruction and technical re-equipment of existing hydropower plants, the completion of the construction of hydropower plants, the preservation of economically justified rates of hydropower construction in the future (with a total commissioning of about 2-3 GW of hydroelectric power during every next five years).
In Siberia, the Far East, the North Caucasus, the North-West and in the European part, hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of about 9000 MW are to be completed. The need for the accelerated commissioning of certain started construction of hydroelectric power plants (Bureyskaya in the Far East, Zelenchukskaya and Irganayskaya in the North Caucasus) is due to an acute shortage of electricity in the regions where they are located.
The list of promising hydropower projects includes dozens of medium and large hydropower facilities with a total capacity of about 40 million kW. The most promising regions for hydropower construction in Russia are the Far East, North-West and North Caucasus.
An important addition to the development of traditional hydropower is the development of small hydropower. In the period up to 2030, a large number of small HPPs with a unit capacity of less than 30 MW with a total annual electricity generation of 2.2 billion kWh can be built (mainly in the European part of the country).
The development of nuclear power is associated with the completion of construction and commissioning of high-availability units, as well as work to extend the life of nuclear power plants for an economically justified period of time. In the long term, the commissioning of power at NPPs will be associated with the replacement of dismantled units at a number of existing plants with new generation power units that meet modern safety requirements. It is envisaged to build a new-generation head power unit at an experimental NPP in the village of Sosnovy Bor; construction of the Smolensk NPP-2 and the South Ural NPP.
It is planned to significantly expand the use of non-traditional renewable energy sources where it is economically viable:
Wind turbines for remote consumers;
Solar installations for heating and hot water supply;
Geothermal water outlets;
Plants for the production of biogas from animal waste.
The share of unconventional sources, including the use of small rivers, may amount to 1.0–1.5% in the total energy balance of the country by 2015.
Russia has a significant potential for tidal energy, estimated at 270 billion kWh. The following objects can be considered as promising objects: Tugurskaya (tidal power station) TPP in the southern part of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk, Mezenskaya TPP on the White Sea, however, the commissioning of these objects is possible only in the distant future.
In the formation of a unified energy system of Russia and a unified energy interconnection throughout the Eurasian continent, the key problems are the problems of increasing the carrying capacity of intersystem connections.
The program for the development of the existing electrical network in Russia should provide for the elimination of existing technological restrictions on the transmission of electricity between different regions of Russia in the next decade, including ensuring a better use of the energy potential of Siberian hydroelectric power plants. Currently, the "locked" capacity of the region is about 10 million kW. This problem can be solved by creating reliable intersystem connections that ensure the parallel operation of the energy systems of the European part, Siberia and the Far East.
One of the most effective ways The solution to the problem of increasing the capacity and controllability of power lines is the use of flexible (controlled) power lines. This fundamentally new technology in the field of electrical energy is based on the widespread introduction of power electronics or conversion technology of the latest generation, the latest technologies in the field of high-temperature superconductivity, microprocessor-based automatic control and regulation systems.
Management of power lines (PTL) is a part of the general system for controlling power flows in networks, switching on reserve sources of electricity, optimizing the operating modes of transmission lines and generators at power plants, including through the use of various energy storage devices (inductive, capacitive, electrochemical, and others). All this cannot be done without creating a global system for the exchange of information on the state of all system elements, including sources, networks and consumers, as well as a general system for managing the balance of power and energy in the system.
Energy is the basis for ensuring the necessary conditions for the life and development of mankind, the level of its material and economic well-being, as well as the relationship between society and the environment. The most convenient and environmentally friendly energy source is electricity. It is the basis for the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the development of science-intensive industries and the informatization of society. Thus, the electrification of the world economy and electricity consumption are expected to grow in the future until 2035. To consider the forecast of the electric power industry, we note the factors that can cause a change in the production and consumption of electricity:
· Rates of economic growth;
· Population growth;
· Improving energy efficiency and energy saving;
· Aging of qualified personnel in the electric power industry of developed countries;
· Increased attention to environmental safety, including policies to reduce CO 2 emissions.
Consider a general forecast for electricity production.
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Table Electricity production forecast, TWh |
Volume of production |
We see that the largest increase in production is expected by 2015 - 18%. Average growth rates from 2008 to 2035 make up 13%.
Consider the structure of types of electricity production in the forecast period:
The diagram shows that with an increase in electricity production, the structure of its sources is practically unchanged. The main share in the structure of electricity production is electricity generated by coal-fired thermal power plants (about 39%). In second place is electricity based on natural gas: on average 23%. Changes in the shares of nuclear and hydropower are also not expected, they occupy 14% and 16% in the structure, respectively. In the forecast period, a slight increase in the share of electricity based on renewable energy sources is expected - from 3% to 7%, with a 7% share expected to be reached by 2020, in the future stable development is planned.
The forecast shows a slight increase in coal consumption for electricity generation. Such a scenario is possible: the economic growth of China and India motivates them to develop their own deposits and develop electricity and production through cheap coal mining. The installed capacity of coal-fired generating capacities in these countries will almost double from 2008 to 2035. The development of the industry will require significant investments in the extractive industry and infrastructure (including transport), so that during the development of the industry, in our opinion, one cannot expect rapid economic growth from these countries.
Electricity production at nuclear power plants in 2008 amounted to 2,600 TWh, and by 2035, it is projected that it will increase to 4,900 TWh. Currently, not only the production of electricity at nuclear power plants is growing, but also their ICUF: from 65% in 1990 to 80% at the present time, which indicates an increase in the efficiency of nuclear energy. Considering the increase in NPP capacity, it can be noted that the countries actively involved in the development of nuclear energy are China, India and Russia. The capacity of nuclear power plants in China from 2008 to 2035 will grow almost 13 times (from 9 GW to 106 GW), India - almost 7 times (from 4.1 to 28 GW). The increase in NPP capacity in Russia over the forecast period is planned to be 122% (from 23.2 GW in 2008 to 51.5 GW in 2035).
Renewable energy sources are another important area of \u200b\u200belectricity generation. Renewable energy production is currently one of the fastest growing areas of the electric power industry. A serious obstacle to the construction of such generating capacities is the high cost of projects and their fluctuating nature of work, but this does not stop countries from developing this sector of the electric power industry: the rate of increase in the volume of generated electricity based on renewable energy sources in the forecast period is planned at 3.1% per year. Of the 4,600 TWh of projected electricity generated from renewable energy sources, by 2035, 55% will be produced at hydroelectric power plants and 27% at wind power plants. In the last ten years, the importance of wind energy has increased greatly: the installed capacity of wind power plants has grown from 18 GW in 2001 to 121 GW in 2009. Obviously, the trend of increasing wind capacity will continue in the future. The governments of many countries around the world have already announced measures aimed at the development of renewable energy. The European Union plans that in 2020 renewables will account for 20% of all generation volumes; the US goal is 10-20% of production from renewable energy sources, while China expects to receive 100 GW of energy from them by 2020.
Even in the context of the crisis and the decline in the activity of many industries, the production of the electric power industry remained practically at the same level, and in some countries it even increased. The electric power industry is an important section of the fuel and energy complex of any country and around the world, and therefore, by 2035, an increase in the volume of generated electricity is expected. Taking into account the described trends, we can also expect an increase in electricity prices.
The article examines the main directions of development of the country's electric power industry based on the draft concept of the Energy Strategy of Russia for the period up to 2050, taking into account the author's vision of the industry perspective.
The role of electricity as a universal energy carrier in the life of modern society and man is very great. The electric power industry provides the needs for the necessary and optimal energy for the household and social sphere, production, transport, communications, informatics, management and defense. The ability of electricity to transform into light, mechanical, thermal, sound types of energy, its communicativeness, environmental friendliness and controllability in use provide the basis for the energy base of modern civilization.
Considering the place, role, efficiency of modern and future use of electricity in Russia, it is advisable to assess three aspects of its functioning and development:
Efficiency of electricity production and its place in the primary and final energy balance of Russia;
Systematic formation of the functioning and development of power supply functions of the electric power industry;
Consumer efficiency in the use of electricity, understanding energy efficiency not only and not so much a purely economic category, but also a social role and significance.
The dominant of the efficiency of electricity production is, as you know, the energy (fuel) component of its cost, which has reached 60% of the total cost. The high energy intensity of electricity generation, associated with the physical process of the Carnot cycle (for TPPs and NPPs), determines the fact that with the cost of generation in the country as a whole - almost 35% of all consumed primary fuel and energy resources, the final consumption of electricity is only about 19% of the total final energy consumption in Russia. These ratios characterize both the high efficiency of final power consumption in the country's economy and the low energy efficiency of electricity production - high specific fuel consumption (about 330 g per supplied kWh), which is significantly higher than in developed foreign countries. Therefore, the most important economic task for the development of the domestic electric power industry is to reduce the specific fuel consumption in the next 25-30 years to the level of 280-300 g / kWh, including thermal power plants running on gas to 240-250 g / kWh.
The main directions of this activity are known - it is an increase in energy efficiency through the development of double cycle generation, increased steam parameters, combined coal-fired power plants. So, for example, combined-cycle plants, which make it possible to increase the generation efficiency by 1.3-1.4 times, have already begun widespread use in the area of \u200b\u200bnatural gas use. It is about the creation of similar installations using coal (PGUU) and other combined high energy efficiency electric generators. Already at present, it can be predicted that on the basis of the main progressive technologies for the production of electricity, with a doubling in the considered future (until 2050) of the demand for electricity in Russia, the share of primary energy resources consumed by the electricity industry will practically remain at the current level, and the ratio of the supplied final energy to the primary consumed will increase by 1.3-1.4 times.
Thermal efficiency is the most essential component of energy production efficiency. Taking into account that the improvement of energy production technologies will require adequate investment costs, it is difficult to predict a decrease in the future of the depreciation component of the cost of electricity, especially since the modern age structure of the industry requires high investment costs to renew the installed capacity of the industry.
However, the cost of operating personnel, despite the need to increase wages, should be reduced by 15-20% due to a corresponding reduction in the staff ratio of operating personnel using advanced foreign experience. In general, there is reason to predict a decrease (in comparable terms) in the unit costs of electricity production in the future, which will contribute to the formation of investment sources for the necessary increase and renewal of the installed capacity of power plants.
Efficiency improvement processes will also be carried out in hydropower. However, forecasting this process in hydropower is complicated by its high dependence on the specific natural conditions for the construction of new hydroelectric power plants.
In nuclear energy, the main promising strategic direction, obviously, will be the creation of nuclear power plants with fast reactors, which are necessary to form a reliable fuel base for nuclear energy.
The priority of ensuring the reliability and safety of NPP operation does not allow at this stage to predict a significant increase in their economic efficiency. At the same time, it can be predicted that despite the forthcoming scientific and technological progress, TPPs, HPPs and NPPs will retain their role and place in the generation of electricity, taking into account the resource and economic regional features of the Russian energy sector.
The generation of electricity based on non-traditional energy resources, which will eventually cease to be non-traditional, will also find its place in the development of the domestic electric power industry in the future. However, unlike many countries of the world, Russia, possessing rich reserves of traditional energy resources and having its own geographical and climatic features, in the coming period will obviously develop the use of unconventional energy resources in the electric power industry only in certain local regional energy zones, where the use of these resources will be economically appropriate.
The systematic formation and development of energy supply for the future is based on traditional components:
Formation of generating capacities with the creation of regulatory reserves of capacities and the optimal structure of capacities, taking into account the base of primary energy carriers and power consumption modes;
Formation and development of a reliable and sustainable power supply system. The set of these organically interconnected components of the power supply function is characterized by a number of components of the future development of the country's electric power industry set out below.
An important factor in the reliability of the functioning of electric power systems in the absence of a "warehouse" of electricity is a sufficient reserve of generating capacities. The current reserve of generating capacities in the Unified Energy System of Russia exceeds the current standard (21% of the maximum load versus 17% according to the standard). Over the past more than 20 years, due to the volumetric and structural changes in the country's economy, the demand for energy has practically not increased, and the age capacities of the electric power industry have been kept in operation. As a result, the average age of the facilities operating in Russia reaches 40 years. Taking this into account, in the period up to 2050, in order to ensure the balance and reliability of power supply, it is necessary to ensure the commissioning of not only generation to increase the demand for power and energy (about 200 million kW), but also to replace 80-90% of the currently operating capacities ( 180-200 million kWt). The solution of such a large-scale problem requires the development of design and scientific structures, construction and installation facilities, a base for the construction industry, a machine-building and operational base.
The development of grid structures of electric power systems requires not only the construction of new electric systems adequate to the growth of generation and the replacement of worn out power lines, but also the development of new, higher voltage classes of power lines (1150 kW), corresponding to the scale of the territory and power consumption of Russia.
With the further development of the country's energy systems, innovative principles of their formation should be used, such as, for example, “smart grids”, etc., ensuring an increase in the energy security of power supply.
It should be noted that recently, new large electricity consumers have shown tendencies to create their own decentralized power supply sources, despite higher generation costs. This is due to the high component in the tariff for centralized electricity of the costs of the system-network and commercial sectors of power supply, as well as high fees for connecting to the power system.
Given the strategic advantages of centralized power supply systems to ensure energy security, it would be advisable to develop and implement measures to increase the interest of electricity consumers in their centralized power supply.
An important component of the development of energy systems is their energy and economic efficiency, which depends on a number of factors, such as:
- dynamics and structure of development of the economy of the country and its regions, which determines the demand and modes of electricity consumption, as well as adequate requirements for power supply systems;
- the cost of the fuel component of the cost of energy;
- economic optimization of the structure of generation in the modes of operation of power systems, taking into account the mode features of the operation of power plants;
- energy system and power grid component of energy costs and cost;
- formation of energy security of power supply;
- capital intensity and adequate depreciation costs.
Ensuring environmental safety requires high investment costs for nuclear power plants (biological protection, radioactive waste, sanitary zones, etc.) and for coal-fired power plants (limiting emissions into the atmosphere, negative ash disposal sites, transport and storage of coal).
The environmental aspects of the creation and operation of reservoirs have a serious impact on the ecological and economic aspects of the development of hydropower.
In addition to the stated main factors of influence on the directions of development of the electric power industry, there are a number of less significant factors that, as a rule, do not determine the principal directions of this development (personnel costs, repair work, etc.).
Taking into account the cumulative impact on strategic and economic assessments of the future development of the energy sector of the country and its regions, the following conceptual approaches to the formation and development of generating capacities are most appropriate.
The structure of the installed capacity of power plants in the territorial context and in Russia as a whole is formed on the basis of resource and economic optimization, based on the availability of reserves of natural regional primary energy resources, their cost, taking into account transportation, investments in generating capacities, production and transport of primary energy resources and electricity, operating conditions power consumption, generation structure, as well as the environmental factor. At the same time, the formation of a systematic construction of power supply of regulatory generating reserves and power grid structures should be carried out taking into account the provision of energy security of electricity consumers.
Analysis of these factors for the territorial enlarged zones of Russia allows us to make the following fundamental statements for future development.
In the European part of the country (North-West, Central, South, North-Caucasian and Volga Federal Districts), nuclear power plants have a priority for the development of basic generating capacities, as they are the most economically and environmentally expedient compared to TPPs using long-haul organic fuel. The large-scale development of nuclear power in the future will require the provision of nuclear fuel. In this regard, it is necessary to create and subsequent serial construction of nuclear power plants with nuclear reactors on fast neutrons and complexes for the secondary processing of nuclear fuel, as well as the development of work on the exploration of reserves and production of natural uranium. The development of fossil fuel TPPs in these regions should be carried out on gas using these power plants in addition to nuclear power plants in basic and semi-peak modes with the construction of combined cycle power units both at new TPPs and instead of steam power plants.
To meet the demand for peak capacities, it is envisaged, along with the use of HPPs and PSPs, the construction of gas turbine generating units. Such a transformation of the structure of the electric power industry in this region will entail an adequate increase in demand for gas. At the same time, the growth of this demand will be limited, since the efficiency of its use in CCGT units is higher than in steam turbine units, and the use of gas turbine units in peak modes is short-lived.
In connection with the predicted widespread use of CCGT and GTU, which can actually operate on gas, in order to implement the stated structural policy in energy generation in the European region, it is necessary to solve the problems of fuel supply redundancy for such power plants.
A different energy situation is promising in the Urals, where there are short transport arms for organic energy carriers, which makes them economically preferable. In the northern part of the Urals, the priority is given to natural gas from the Yamalo-Nenets deposits and, accordingly, combined-cycle TPPs, and in the southern part - TPPs using Kuznetsk coal. Accordingly, TPPs using these energy carriers will provide energy and power to all zones of electrical loads in the Ural region.
Coal will remain the dominant energy carrier for basic electricity generation in Siberia and the Far East, the economic characteristics of which are a priority in these regions, and the proven geological reserves are enormous. The main task is the technological improvement of the energy use of coal, solving the problem of the negative impact of their combustion on the environment.
In the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, rich in hydro resources, the development of hydropower will continue, but the share of hydroelectricity in the volume of electricity production will be limited by its economically justified place in the coverage of energy load schedules and environmental conditions for land use. In other words, the economic feasibility of using hydropower plants in these regions will remain, mainly as a semi-peak and peak energy source. In regions with long-distance delivery of fuel, nuclear power plants may be economically viable, especially as the electrical loads increase.
The use of gas-fired TPPs in the eastern regions of the country, rich in reserves of cheap coal, may be advisable in large cities for power plants in order to achieve environmental comfort. However, this does not remove the problem of protecting the environment from the negative impact of the operation of coal-fired thermal power plants. This problem is one of the most pressing for the future, since the reserves of coal, including cheap ones, in the eastern regions of the country are not so large.
Competitiveness and large-scale development of nuclear power plants in Siberia and the Far East, given the presence of large reserves of cheap coal and prospects for the development of new gas fields with a relatively short gas transportation distance, is unlikely.
Electricity generation based on renewable natural energy resources (wind, solar, geothermal, tidal energy, biomass) will develop everywhere, especially in the electrically isolated regions of the country, as well as in the private sector, which, as one might hope, will cease to be unconventional.
The reliability of the functioning and development of the electric power industry, which ensures the vital activity of the economy and the population of the country in the current mode, is largely due to the interaction of state and private property structures, technologically united in a single power supply process. This requires finding effective mechanisms for coordinating the investment processes of various owners in the interests of reliable power supply.
The development of the country's generating structures should be organically combined with the formation of energy systems and electrical networks. To ensure a reliable and balanced energy supply to the country and its regions, it is necessary to further improve the mechanisms of interaction of energy development, especially in terms of investment, between the structures of federal government and energy balance regulation and economic entities of private capital that own generating potential - investors and regional power grids. The country's electric power industry needs to be prepared for the forthcoming high rates of the required commissioning of new generating and power grid capacities that require large investment resources.
It is advisable to supplement the stated vision of the directions and problems of the future development of the country's electric power industry with considerations about the possible expansion of the sphere of both energy and technological use of electricity, taking into account not only the economic, but also the social effect, which will lead to an increase in the growth rate of demand for electricity. These prospects include, in particular, the following.
- The convenience and controllability of the use of electricity for heating purposes will provide it with increasing priority over time, despite the rise in the cost of heating at the present time, taking into account all the factors of influence, by about 1.8 times. At the same time, there is every reason to predict a decrease in the cost of electric heating due to the widespread use of steam and gas generation of electricity, nuclear energy, and cheap coal fuel in the eastern regions of the country. Undoubtedly, as the well-being of the population grows, the factor of living comfort will prevail over the factor of costs, especially since the cost of electricity in the structure of costs of the population and the overwhelming majority of its industrial consumers is a few percent. The fact that the cost factor in the choice of the measure of convenience by the population is not always decisive can be seen in the example of the high rates of development of its own motor transport, while the costs of this transport are several times higher than for using public transport.
- It should be borne in mind that the development of electric heating will be facilitated by the possibility of its hardware unity with the air conditioning in rooms, which has already found wide application today.
- Already in the near future, one should expect the beginning of the wide development of electric car passenger transport as environmentally and sanitary preferable. In the future, an electric car may become more preferable as prices for motor fuel continue to rise and the battery fleet improves.
- In industrial production, there are reasons to predict the development of electrical technologies, electronic technology, informatics, communication facilities for electrified railway transport. Further electrification of production processes in all types of activities is an important component of increasing productivity, hygiene and work culture, automation of production processes, and environmental protection.
The possibility and feasibility of expanding the use of electricity is available in almost all types of activities, in the sphere of services and everyday life.
Further electrification of labor processes and technologies of all types of activities can, according to estimates, increase the productivity of production processes by 2.5-3 times, increase the comfort of life in the next 35 years by doubling the specific power consumption in the residential sector, and increase the specific power consumption in the country as a whole. per person from 7 thousand kWh per year to 13 thousand kWh, respectively.
Thus, there is every reason to predict that further electrification of the country will bring new opportunities for improving the quality of life in Russia in the future.
Power industry development prospects
The strategic goals for the development of the electric power industry in the considered perspective are:
reliable power supply of the economy and population of the country with electricity;
preservation of the integrity and development of the Unified Energy System of the country, its integration with other energy networks on the Eurasian continent;
improving the efficiency of functioning and ensuring sustainable development of the electric power industry based on new modern technologies;
reduction of harmful effects on the environment.
Based on the projected volumes of demand for electricity at high rates of economic development (optimistic and favorable options), the total electricity production may increase compared to 2000 by more than 1.2 times by 2010 (up to 1,070 billion kWh ) and 1.6 times by 2020 (up to 1365 billion kWh). At a reduced rate of economic development (moderate option), electricity production will amount to 1015 and 1215 billion kWh, respectively.
Ensuring these levels of power consumption requires solving a number of systemic problems:
restrictions on intersystem power flows,
aging of main power equipment,
technological backwardness, irrational structure of the fuel balance, etc.
The energy capacities of the Siberian hydroelectric power plants and thermal power plants remain unclaimed: the locked capacities in this region are about 7-10 million kW. Therefore, one of the strategic tasks of the electric power industry is the development of intersystem power transmissions of 500-1150 kV to enhance the reliability of parallel operation of the UPS of Siberia with the power systems of the European part of Russia along the Itat - Chelyabinsk route and from the UPS of the Far East (Irkutsk - Zeya - Khabarovsk). This will allow avoiding expensive coal transportation from Kuzbass and KATEK due to their use at local thermal power plants with the delivery of 5-6 million kW to the west and 2-3 million kW to the east. In addition, the use of the maneuverable capabilities of the Angara-Yenisei cascade hydroelectric power station will relieve tension with the regulation of the load schedule in European regions.
The depreciation of the active part of assets in the electric power industry is generally 60-65%, incl. in rural distribution networks - over 75%. Domestic equipment, which forms the technical basis of the electric power industry, is obsolete, inferior to modern requirements and the best world products. Therefore, it is necessary not only to maintain operability, but also to significantly update the OPF based on new equipment and technologies for the production and distribution of electricity and heat.
The presence of worn-out equipment in power systems, the share of which has already exceeded 15% of all capacities, and the inability to restore it, introduces the power industry into a zone of increased risk, technological failures, accidents and, as a result, a decrease in the reliability of power supply.
The irrational structure of the fuel balance is due to the pursued policy of prices for primary energy resources for power plants. Coal prices are on average 1.5 times higher than gas prices. Under such conditions, given the high capital intensity of coal-fired power plants, they become uncompetitive and cannot develop, which can aggravate the situation that has developed in recent years, when the share of electricity generation using gas in the structure of the fuel balance of thermal power plants exceeded 60%.
To develop the unified national electric grid as the main element of the Unified Energy System of Russia and strengthen the unity of the country's economic space, it is envisaged to build a power transmission line in a volume that ensures the stable and reliable operation of the UES of Russia and the elimination of technical constraints that hinder the development of a competitive electricity and capacity market.
The future development of the electric grid of the UES of Russia is based on the following basic principles:
flexibility, allowing for phased development and the ability to adapt to changing operating conditions (load growth, development of power plants, reverse power flows, implementation of new interstate contracts for the supply of electricity);
development of the main network of the UES of Russia by gradual "superstructure" with higher voltage lines after a sufficiently complete coverage of the territory by networks of the previous voltage class and the exhaustion of their capabilities, as well as the readiness of these networks to work with single higher voltage transmission lines superimposed on them;
minimizing the number of additional transformations 220/330, 330/500, 500/750 kV in the zones of joint action of these voltages;
controllability of the main electrical network through the use of forced flow distribution means - adjustable shunt reactors, DC links, synchronous and static compensators, electromechanical converters, phase shifting devices, etc.
The backbone of the backbone grids of the UES of Russia in the period up to 2020 will continue to be 500-750 kV transmission lines. The total commissioning of transmission lines with a voltage of 330 kV and above in the period up to 2020 should be, depending on the development option, 25-35 thousand km.
The development of the country's unified electrical network will be carried out under the control of the Federal Grid Company and the System Operator (with the state's share in both - 75% + 1 share), while the vertical of dispatch and technological control will be preserved and ensured.
To ensure the predicted levels of electricity and heat consumption in the optimistic and favorable options, the commissioning of generating capacities at power plants in Russia (taking into account replacement and modernization) for the period 2003-2020. are estimated at about 177 million kW, including at HPPs and PSPs - 11.2 million kW, at NPPs - 23 million kW, at TPPs - 143 million kW (of which PTU and GTU - 37 million kW) ... In a moderate version, commissioning is estimated at about 121 million kW, including at HPPs and PSPs - 7 million kW, at NPPs - 17 million kW, at TPPs - 97 million kW (of which STU and GTU - 31.5 million kW).
The development of the electric power industry in the period under review will proceed from the following economically justified priorities for the territorial distribution of generating capacities in the industry:
in the European part of Russia - technical re-equipment of gas-fired TPPs with replacement of steam-power turbines by steam-gas turbines and maximum development of nuclear power plants;
in Siberia - the development of coal-fired thermal power plants and hydroelectric power plants;
in the Far East - the development of hydroelectric power plants, gas thermal power plants in large cities and in some regions - nuclear power plants, nuclear power plants.
Thermal power plants will remain the basis of the electric power industry for the entire considered prospect, the share of which in the structure of the installed capacity of the industry will remain at the level of 60-70%. Electricity generation at thermal power plants by 2020 will increase 1.4 times compared to 2000.
The structure of fuel consumed at TPPs will change towards a decrease in the share of gas by 2020 and, accordingly, an increase in the share of coal, and the ratio between gas and coal will be determined by the prevailing conjuncture of prices for natural gas and coal, as well as government policy in the use of various types of organic fuel for the electric power industry.
The determining factor is the price of natural gas, which must be consistently increased to a level that provides sufficient opportunities for the development of the gas industry. For coal-fired power plants to be competitive with gas-fired power plants in the emerging electricity market in Russia, the price of gas must be 1.6-2.0 times higher than the price of coal. Such a price ratio will reduce the share of gas in the structure of fuel consumption at TPPs.
As a result, the value of the average tariff for electricity for all categories of consumers is estimated at the level of 2020 in the range of 4.0-4.5 cents / kWh. It is necessary to eliminate cross-subsidization and ensure differentiation of tariffs depending on the daily and seasonal schedules of load coverage, as is customary in world practice, since the costs of generating electricity from expensive peak generating capacities are several times higher than the production costs from the basic capacities of NPPs and CHPs. In addition, it is planned to introduce a system of discounts for energy-intensive consumers.
Scenarios for the development of the thermal power industry associated with the possibility of a radical change in the conditions for fuel supply to thermal power plants in the European regions of the country, tightening of environmental requirements, overcoming by 2010 the tendency for the increase in the growth rate of equipment at power plants that have exhausted their park resource over the rate of its decommissioning and renewal require the earliest implementation of the achievements of scientific and technological progress and new technologies in the electric power industry.
For gas-fired power plants, such technologies are: steam-gas cycle, gas turbine superstructures of steam power units and gas turbines with heat recovery. At power plants operating on solid fuels, environmentally friendly technologies of coal combustion in a circulating fluidized bed were used, and later - coal gasification using generator gas in combined cycle plants. New coal-fired TPPs in large cities, areas of concentrated population and agricultural regions should be equipped with desulfurization units.
The transition from steam-turbine TPPs using gas to combined-cycle TPPs will increase the efficiency of installations up to 50%, and in the future - up to 60% or more. The second direction of increasing the thermal efficiency of TPPs is the construction of new coal blocks for supercritical steam parameters with an efficiency of 45-46%. This will significantly reduce the specific fuel consumption for electricity generation at TPPs using solid fuels from 360 c.f. / kWh in 2000 to 310 c.f. / kWh in 2010 and to 280 g.f. / kWh in 2020
The most important role in reducing the consumption of fuel used for the production of electricity and heat in the electric power sector will be played by district heating, that is, electricity generation at TPPs with the utilization of heat spent in a steam-power, gas-turbine or combined steam-gas cycle.
An important direction in the electric power industry in modern conditions is the development of distributed generation based on the construction of small power plants, primarily small CHPPs with steam turbines, gas turbines and other modern technologies.
Gas turbine, gas piston and combined cycle CHPPs, focused on serving consumers with heat loads of low and medium concentration (up to 10-50 Gcal / h), called cogeneration, will primarily provide a decentralized heat supply sector. In addition, some of the district heating and industrial boiler houses will be reconstructed (where possible and economically justified) in a low-power CHP.
As a result, in the process of development of district heating and cogeneration, the share of electricity and heat producers independent of AO-energos will increase, and competition between producers of electric and heat energy will increase.
To implement the industry's innovative program, it is necessary to carry out a complex of scientific research and development in the following areas:
expanding the resource base of the electric power industry and increasing regional fuel supply through the development of efficient environmentally friendly combustion of the Kansk-Achinsk and low-grade coals of the eastern regions of Russia in boilers of steam-tube power units for supercritical steam parameters, including with a "ring" furnace, in a molten slag, in furnaces with circulating fluidized bed and under pressure;
improving the efficiency of environmental protection based on integrated gas cleaning and ash collection systems at power units;
increasing the efficiency of the steam-gas cycle by choosing a heat recovery scheme;
creation and development of production of new generation power plants based on solid oxide fuel cells for centralized power supply, study of the possibility of using other types of fuel cells for these purposes;
creation and commissioning of reliable electrical switching equipment with SF6 and vacuum insulation;
development of intersystem electrical transmissions with increased throughput;
development of flexible electric transmissions;
introduction of a new generation of transformer equipment, overvoltage protection systems and microprocessor systems RZ and PAA, fiber-optic communication systems;
creation and implementation of electrical equipment, including converting units, for variable frequency electric drives for various purposes;
improving the reliability of heat supply on the basis of increasing the durability and corrosion resistance of pipes of heating networks with polyurethane foam insulation.
Hydro resources in Russia are comparable in their potential to the current volumes of electricity generation by all power plants in the country, but they are used only by 15%. Taking into account the increase in the costs of fossil fuel extraction, and, as a consequence, the expected significant increase in prices for it, it is necessary to ensure the maximum possible use and development of hydropower, which is an environmentally friendly renewable source of electricity. Taking this into account, the generation of electricity at HPPs in the optimistic and favorable scenarios will increase to 180 billion kWh in 2010 and to 215 billion kWh in 2020 with a further increase to 350 billion kWh due to the construction of new Hydroelectric power station.
The hydropower industry will develop mainly in Siberia and the Far East, providing an almost basic operating mode for thermal power plants in these regions. In European regions, where the economically efficient potential of hydropower has been practically exhausted, the construction of small hydroelectric power plants will develop, and the construction of medium-sized peak hydroelectric power plants will continue, mainly in the North Caucasus.
To ensure the reliable functioning of the UES of Russia and to cover the uneven schedule of electricity consumption in the face of an increase in the share of basic nuclear power plants in the European part of the country, it is necessary to accelerate the construction of PSPP.
The development of the network economy, renewal of capacity and ensuring an increase in demand for generating capacity requires a multiple increase in investments in the industry.
In this case, the sources of investment will be:
for thermal generating companies - the companies' own funds (depreciation and profit), debt and equity capital;
for hydro-generating companies with state participation - along with the indicated sources, it is possible to create and use targeted investment funds formed from the profit of the hydroelectric power station;
for the federal grid company and the system operator - centralized investment funds included in transmission tariffs and system services.
It is necessary to modernize communal energy, including by attracting private capital into this potentially attractive in terms of investment sphere of economic activity on the basis of reforming and modernizing the entire housing and communal complex Russian Federation with the transformation of unitary municipal enterprises that provide power supply to the population and the municipal sphere of cities into open joint-stock companies and their subsequent integration with AO-energo enterprises, including the use of concession, rental and other mechanisms for managing communal infrastructure facilities.
To attract large-scale investments in the electric power industry, a radical reform of the industry and an appropriate state tariff policy are required.
In accordance with the law "On Electricity", the reform of the electric power industry is planned to be carried out on the following principles:
assignment of transmission, distribution of electrical energy and dispatching to the exclusive types of activities subject to state regulation, the implementation of which is possible only on the basis of special permits (licenses);
demonopolization and development of competition in the field of production, marketing and rendering of services (repair, adjustment, design, etc.);
ensuring all producers and consumers of electricity have equal access to the market infrastructure;
unity of safety standards, technical norms and rules in force in the electric power industry;
ensuring financial transparency of electricity markets and the activities of organizations in regulated sectors of the electricity industry;
ensuring the rights of investors, creditors and shareholders during structural transformations.
The main task of the ongoing reforms in the electric power industry is to develop competition in potentially competitive areas of activity - the generation and sale of electricity in those areas where it is technologically and economically feasible, which in turn will create conditions for more efficient economic activities in the field of generation, transmission and sale of electricity. At the same time, of course, stable and stable operation of the Unified Energy System of the Russian Federation, reliable electricity and heat supply to the regions of the Russian Federation should be ensured.
Based on the principles of economic feasibility in the formation of a management strategy in the field of the electric power industry, as well as on the unconditional implementation of the principles of energy security of the Russian Federation, the state will encourage a reasonable combination of export / import of electricity. The import of electricity at the first stage of the reform of the electric power industry will be considered justified in cases where it will help to prevent an abrupt increase in tariffs in the domestic market of the Russian Federation, as well as overcome the deficit in certain segments of the wholesale market for the period of reconstruction of existing and construction of new generating facilities.
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1. F. Kotler "Marketing and Management", Peter, 2004
2. Khungureeva I.P., Shabykova N.E., Ungaeva I.Yu. Enterprise Economics: Textbook. - Ulan-Ude, VSGTU Publishing House, 2004.
3. Avdasheva "theory of industry markets"
4. Magazine "Business and Law" №10 / 2008
5. Baryshev A.V. "Monopoly and Antitrust Policy", 1994.
Especially for the portal "Perspectives"
Vladimir Kondratyev
Kondratyev Vladimir Borisovich - Doctor of Economics, Professor, Head of the Center for Industrial and Investment Research of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences
The power industry is undergoing no less radical changes than during the massive construction of nuclear reactors in the 1960s and 1970s. The share of alternative energy sources is growing, the disproportion in prices for coal and natural gas is growing, the role of nuclear energy is being rethought. The world economy is transforming from energy deficit to energy surplus. The second part of the article examines the global perspectives of the industry and ways to reform it in the EU, India, Brazil, South Korea and, in more detail, in Russia.
The large-scale changes that are currently taking place in the world energy sector are proceeding rather slowly and often unnoticed by others. However, energy companies and politicians are already facing new challenges, and the future of the industry for many years to come depends on the answers to them.
European Union
Compared to the average world structure of electricity generation, in the EU countries, the share of nuclear power plants is noticeably higher (almost 30%), as well as of alternative energy sources - wind, biomass, etc. (about 8%).
Figure: 1.
A source: U. S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. Electricity. U.S. Department of Energy. Wash. D . C.
The main body responsible for the development and harmonization of EU energy policy is the Directorate General for Energy (until 2010 - Directorate General for Energy and Transport). Subsequent stages of regulation relate to the level of individual EU member states, in each of which different systems of industry management may operate. One representative from each EU country is a member of the ERGEG (European Regulators "Group for Electricity and Gas). The Association was formed by the European Commission as an advisory body on the creation of an internal electricity market. The main activity of the association is to draft laws and strategic documents for the development of the industry.
Liberalization of EU markets did not imply mandatory privatization of the electricity sector. In many countries, there are still large generating companies, most of whose shares are owned by the state (Italy, Sweden). Companies with a large share and power in the markets of the respective countries are typical for the EU as a whole: these are EdF in France, EdP in Portugal, Electrabel in Belgium, etc.
The transmission and management functions of power systems are performed by system operators in most countries. There are currently 34 system operators in the EU, united in the ENTSO-E association. In accordance with the Third Package of Energy Laws, it carries out pan-European planning and coordination of power systems operating in parallel.
The EC directive of 26.06.2003 imposed obligations on the member states of the European Union to deregulate and liberalize the electricity industry. The directive also envisioned the subsequent integration of local electricity markets into a single internal EU market. The goals of the reform were to improve the efficiency of the electric power industry, reduce electricity prices, improve the quality of service and increase competition.
First of all, it was envisaged to separate vertically integrated energy companies by type of activity and to ensure competition in the generation and sales sectors. It was not about a mandatory change of ownership, if the operators of transmission and distribution networks provided non-discriminatory access to the network with an economically justified connection price. A key element of the division was the formation of independent management and decision-making bodies in transmission, distribution and generation companies.
The directive was aimed at creating compatible conditions for the supply of electricity to consumers in the EU member states, which will allow in the future to come to a single European electricity market. These conditions include: the level of competition in the market, the economic feasibility of the cost of electricity, the possibility of free choice of a supplier, a system of tenders for the introduction of new capacity, reduction of CO 2 emissions into the atmosphere, etc.
As a result of the reform, the European electricity market is a conglomerate of interconnected regional markets (Baltics; Eastern Central Europe; Western Central Europe; Southern Central Europe, Northern Europe; Southwestern Europe and France-UK-Ireland).
One of the main problems on the way to the formation of a single market is the presence of congestion on cross-border sections between regional markets. It is planned to solve this problem by stimulating investments in the network infrastructure and to complete the formation of a single market by 2014. The most developed market is considered to be the Northern European market, especially its Scandinavian part. This market has some of the lowest prices in Europe and liquidity exceeds 30%.
There are 9 main electricity exchanges in the EU: NordPool, EEX, IPEX, Powernext, APX NL, APX UK, Belpex, Endex and Omel. In recent years, there has been a trend towards the merger of exchanges and the expansion of the territory they cover. All exchanges trade on a day-ahead basis, and some also have intraday, balancing and futures markets.
Despite the liberalization carried out, in many countries a significant share of regulated electricity supplies remains. To a greater extent, this concerns the new EU members - Bulgaria, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, however, regulated tariffs for the population remain in some countries with developed markets, such as France and Italy.
India
More than 30% of generating assets are controlled by the government at the national level. The largest generating companies are the National Hydro Power Generation Corporation, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India, and the National Heat Power Corporation. At the state level, the state owns 52% of the generation and distribution companies. The state controls the PowerGrid of India corporation, which is responsible for the functioning and development of the national energy system. Roughly 13% of generation at the state level is privately owned.
The structure of electricity generation is dominated by coal-fired thermal power plants. Hydroelectric power plants (25%) and renewable energy sources (7%), primarily biomass, play a relatively large role in India compared to the world average (Fig. 2).
Figure: 2. Structure of electricity generation by fuel type
A source
.
C.
The Ministry of Energy of India is responsible for the development of the industry and the formation of energy policy in the country as a whole. The implementation of domestic energy policies at the state level is the responsibility of their governments.
Tariffs for electricity production by state-owned generating companies and for transmission of electricity through transmission networks are set by the Central Regulatory Commission of India. At the regional level, utilities are governed by 28 relevant state regulatory commissions.
In recent decades, the Indian government has been liberalizing markets and taking steps to stimulate private investment in the electricity sector while maintaining government regulation of the sector. The Law on Electricity, adopted in 2003, became the main state act of reforming the electric power industry. The law abolished the requirements for compulsory licensing of construction projects for generating facilities, created conditions for the development of competition and attracting foreign investors, and launched the processes of separation by type of activity. In order to attract private investment, the Government of India has issued a specific guideline setting out rules for the participation of private investors in electricity generation, transmission and distribution projects.
For the development of electricity trade, the law establishes the following stages:
determination by the relevant regulatory commission of the tariff for the electricity sold according to the formula “production costs + standard profitability”;
determination of the tariff based on competitive bidding;
price competition between electricity producers and market opening.
Since June 2002, the Power Trading Corporation of India (PTC) has been operating in the country, the main activity of which at the first stage was the purchase of surplus electricity from generating companies and their subsequent sale to vertically integrated energy companies of the states at an economically justified cost, ensuring an optimal balance of interests of sellers and buyers. ...
PTC did not own any generating or grid assets and functioned as the only supplier to minimize the financial and operational risks of buyers and sellers of electricity. It guaranteed timely payments to electricity producers and fulfillment of obligations to supply electricity to buyers.
Brazil
Here, the structure of generation is dominated by hydropower, which accounts for up to 80% of the electricity produced in the country. The importance of nuclear power plants, gas and coal power plants is small. Biomass power plants play a relatively important role (Fig. 3).
Figure: 3. Structure of electricity generation by fuel type
A source: U.S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. Electricity. U.S. Department of Energy. Wash. D
.
C.
Brazil, along with Canada and China, is one of the three countries with the largest hydropower generation. Thermal power plants, which are a reserve during seasons of low water content, are highly dependent on imported fuel. At present, much attention is paid to the development of wind and solar energy, biomass power plants (in particular, ethanol), small hydroelectric power plants.
Electricity enterprises in Brazil, in accordance with the forms of ownership, can be conditionally divided into three groups: state, municipal and private. State-owned companies include: "Eletrobrás" - generation, transmission, distribution; Eletronorte - generation, transmission, distribution; Boa Vista - distribution; NUCLEN - nuclear power; CEPEL - research.
The municipal enterprises CESP, CEMIG, COPEL, CEEE deal with generation, transmission and distribution, Transmissão Paulista only with the transmission of electricity, and another 11 municipal companies exclusively with distribution. The private enterprise category includes 5 generating companies and 40 distribution companies.
The largest company in the industry is the Eletrobras holding, 78% of which is currently owned by the state. Eletrobras controls 40% of the installed generating capacity, 60% of the transmission lines and state distribution companies. The ten largest companies in terms of installed capacity are CHESF, Furnas, Eletronorte, Itaipu, CESP (part of the Eletrobras holding), CEMIG-GT, Tractebel, COPEL-GER, AES TIETÊ, Duke Energy ...
The National Unified Power System (Rede Basica / SIN) is one of the largest in the world in terms of both network length and installed capacity. Outside the SIN, there is an isolated system for the part of the Amazon region that is controlled by Eletrobras. Brazil is connected by power lines to Paraguay, Argentina, Venezuela and Uruguay.
The main provisions of the sectoral policy are determined by the President of the country on the basis of preliminary consultations conducted by the National Energy Policy Council and the Committee of Line Ministries (CNPE). The CNPE includes the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of the Environment.
Apart from the MME (lead ministry), the State Energy Research Company (EPE) is responsible for the strategy and planning of the development of the electricity sector. EPE develops a strategy for a 10-year period with annual adjustments and a 25-year period with adjustments every 3 to 4 years. Key documents defining the rules for the functioning of the Brazilian electric power industry are developed by EPE and submitted to MME for further approval by the Committee of line ministries.
The independent regulator is the National Electricity Agency (ANEEL) - an autonomous body, approved by law, administratively related to the MME, but not subordinate to it. ANEEL regulates and controls the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in accordance with applicable laws, directives and government policies.
Initially, the Brazilian electricity sector was driven by private capital. Until the 1930s, electricity generation was mainly controlled by two large foreign associations - the American-Canadian ("Group Light") and the American (AMFORP). Subsequently, the state began to pursue a policy of nationalizing the industry. In 1961, Eletrobrás and MME were created, and in 1978 the state acquired Group Light.
By the 1990s, the backbone of Brazil's electricity sector was vertically integrated, mostly state-owned. Hyperinflation, subsidized tariff policies and insufficient funding have led to the need to reform the industry. In 1996, reforms were carried out to liberalize the market. In 1998, a wholesale electricity market was created, which began operating in 2001, after the norms and rules of operation were determined. From 1995 to 1998, 60% of distribution companies were privatized.
These measures have resulted in a reduction in government spending on investment in infrastructure development by attracting private capital and encouraging free competition. The level of customer service has significantly increased, the volumes of electricity theft, non-payments and technical losses have decreased. However, the long-term drought that affected the volume of electricity production in the conditions of the dominance of hydropower, the imperfect mechanism of regulation and management of the industry, the poor distribution of investments and their insufficient volume, as well as the outstripping supply of demand neutralized the positive effect of the reforms and were the main reasons for the crisis of 2001-2002.
The main directions of the new reform were the centralization of decision-making and giving a greater role to state regulation. The tasks of ensuring the reliability of energy supply to consumers and providing universal access to electricity through social programs were also solved.
In Brazil, there are two sites for concluding contracts for the sale of electricity:
Ambiente de Contrataçăo Regulado (ACR) - for the conclusion of regulated contracts (for a year, 3 and 5 years in advance). Here are the subjects of generation and distribution of electrical energy. The purchase and sale is carried out through an annual auction organized by ANEEL at the request of the MME;
Ambiente de Contrataçăo Livre (ACL) - for the conclusion of non-regulated contracts. It presents generating entities, sales organizations, importers and exporters of electricity, as well as large consumers.
South Korea
The structure of electricity generation in South Korea is fairly uniform. The main share falls on coal-fired power plants operating on liquefied gas and nuclear power plants. At the same time, the share of nuclear power is noticeably higher than the global average (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4 . Structuregeneratingelectricitybytypesfuel
A source: U.S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. Electricity. U.S. Department of Energy. Wash. D . C.
About 93% of the country's electricity generation comes from the state-owned KEPCO ("Korean Electric Power Company"), in which the state owns 51% of the shares. The remaining 7% is generated by private companies.
Regulation is carried out by the Korean Electricity Commission (KOREC), established in April 2001 under the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy (MOCIE). The main objectives of KOREC are: creating a competitive environment for electric power companies; resolution of issues affecting the rights of energy consumers; settlement of disputes related to entrepreneurial activity in the electric power industry.
The basic plan for reforming the electricity industry in South Korea was approved in 1998 and provided for a phased transition to a competitive market:
1st stage (2000-2002) - a market in the form of an electric power pool, within which the price is determined based on the cost of generating electricity;
2nd stage (2003-2008) - also a market in the form of a pool, but now the price is determined on the basis of price bids from electricity producers and consumers;
3rd stage (since 2009) - retail competition.
In 2000, the Korea Power Exchange (KPX) was established with the main task of managing the electricity pool. In 2001, the pool began to function. However, the transition to the second stage of the reform did not take place: the South Korean electricity market still functions as an electricity pool, in which buyers do not participate in pricing.
In 2009, at the initiative of the government, a project was launched to study possible options for reforming the electric power industry. The current model continues to be refined in order to improve the conditions for competition between manufacturers.
Currently, KPX, in addition to the functions of a commercial operator for managing the electricity pool, performs the functions of a system operator, which include managing the power grid and ensuring the reliable operation of the power system. In addition, KPX carries out long-term planning for the development of generation and power grids in order to ensure the reliability of electricity supply. The exchange also provides market participants and electricity consumers with the information they need to make business decisions.
The members of the electricity pool include electricity producers (as of 2009 - 6 subsidiary generating companies KEPCO and 295 private generating companies) and a single electricity purchaser (KEPCO).
Russia
The electric power industry is the basic branch of the Russian economy, providing electric and thermal energy to the needs of the national economy and the population, as well as exporting electricity to the CIS countries and far abroad. Sustainable development and reliable operation of the industry largely determine the country's energy security and are important factors in its successful economic development.
The modern electric power complex of Russia includes about 600 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW each. The total installed capacity of power plants in Russia is 223.1 GW. The generation structure is shown in Fig. five.
Figure: five. Generation structure by fuel type in 2011
Source: Rosstat, RF Ministry of Energy.
All stations generate about a trillion kWh of electricity annually. In 2012, the power plants of the UES of Russia generated 1,053.4 billion kWh (1.23% more than in 2011).
The leading position in the industry is occupied by the thermal power industry, which for Russia is a historically established and economically justified pattern. The most developed and widespread are thermal power plants for general use operating on fossil fuels (gas, coal), mainly steam turbines, which account for about 70% of the electricity generated in the country. The largest thermal power plant in Russia is the largest on the Eurasian continent, Surgutskaya GRES-2 (5600 MW), which runs on natural gas (the abbreviation GRES, which has survived from Soviet times, means a state regional power plant). Of the coal-fired power plants, the largest installed capacity is at Reftinskaya GRES (3800 MW). The largest Russian TPPs also include Surgutskaya GRES-1 and Kostromskaya GRES, each with a capacity of over 3 thousand MW. In the process of the industry reform, the largest thermal power plants in Russia were merged into wholesale generating companies (WGCs) and territorial generating companies (TGKs).
Hydropower provides system services (frequency, capacity) and is a key element in ensuring the reliability of the country's Unified Energy System. Of all the existing types of power plants, it is hydroelectric power stations that are the most maneuverable and are capable, if necessary, of quickly increasing the production volumes, covering peak loads. Russia has a great potential for the development of hydropower: about 9% of the world's hydropower reserves are concentrated in the country. In terms of the provision of these resources, Russia ranks second in the world after China, ahead of the United States, Brazil, and Canada.
Currently, 102 hydroelectric power plants with a capacity of over 100 MW operate in the country. The total installed capacity of all hydroelectric power plants in Russia is approximately 46,000 MW (5th in the world). In 2011, Russian hydroelectric power plants generated 153.3 billion kWh of electricity. The share of hydroelectric power plants in the total volume of electricity production was 16%.
During the reform of the electric power industry, the federal hydro-generating company JSC HydroOGK (current name JSC RusHydro) was created, which united the bulk of the country's hydropower assets. Until recently, the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP with a capacity of 6721 MW (Khakassia) was considered the largest Russian hydroelectric power plant. However, after the tragic accident on August 17, 2009, its capacities were partially out of order.
Russia possesses nuclear technology full cycle from uranium ore mining to power generation. Today, the country operates 10 nuclear power plants (a total of 33 power units) with an installed capacity of 23.2 GW, which generate about 15% of all electricity produced. 5 more nuclear power plants are under construction. Nuclear power is widely developed in the European part of Russia (30% of the total electricity generation), especially in the Northwest (37%). In December 2007, in accordance with the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation, the State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom was established, which manages all nuclear assets, including both the civilian part of the nuclear industry and the nuclear weapons complex. It is also entrusted with the tasks of fulfilling Russia's international obligations in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy and the non-proliferation of nuclear materials.
The main power facilities in Russia were built during the Soviet period. However, already in the late 1980s, signs of a slowdown in the development of the industry appeared: the renewal of production facilities began to lag behind the growth in electricity consumption. In the 1990s, the volume of electricity consumption decreased significantly, while the process of renewal of capacities practically stopped. In terms of technological indicators, Russian energy companies were seriously lagging behind their counterparts in developed countries. There were no incentives to improve efficiency, rational planning of modes of production and consumption of electricity, energy saving. Due to reduced control over compliance with safety rules and significant depreciation of funds, there was a high probability of major accidents.
The industry demanded urgent large-scale transformations, contributing to the renewal of the main capacities, increasing the efficiency, reliability and safety of energy supply to consumers. To this end, the Government of the Russian Federation in the early 2000s embarked on a course towards liberalizing the electricity market, reforming the industry and creating conditions for attracting large-scale investments in the power industry.
In 2000 - 2001 the private sector was considered as the main possible source of investment resources. The principle of dividing the vertically integrated structure of the industry was implemented. At the same time, the so-called natural monopolies - electricity transmission, operational dispatch management - were separated from the competitive sectors: generation and sales, repair and service.
Monopolies, as well as nuclear power plants, remained under state control, while generating, sales and repair companies had to become private and compete with each other. This created the preconditions for a free electricity market, where prices are not set by the state, but are determined on the basis of the ratio of supply and demand. As expected, private utilities will become interested in improving efficiency and reducing costs.
On the basis of thermal generation, six extraterritorial structures were created - wholesale generating companies (WGCs). HPPs (RusHydro company) were allocated to a separate structure. In addition, 14 territorial generating companies (TGCs) were created, which included mainly CHPs. On the basis of distribution networks, interregional distribution grid companies (IDGCs) arose, united into a holding, the controlling stake in which remained with the state (unlike, for example, Ukraine, where all oblenergos were transformed into independent companies). Finally, the backbone networks came under the control of the Federal Grid Company (FGC).
The government decree “On Reforming the Electricity Industry of the Russian Federation” was adopted in July 2001, the reform actually started in 2003. By the beginning of 2008, the formation of WGCs and TGKs was completed, which were privatized. New owners, including both state-owned (Gazprom, Inter RAO) and Russian and foreign private companies (Norilsk Nickel, Oleg Deripaska's Eurosibenergo, Italian Enel, German E.ON), signed very serious investment commitments.
On the whole, since 2008, the Russian energy market has been living and working according to new rules. But the results of this work look very contradictory and do not fully satisfy both the government and electricity consumers.
The most notable consequence of the reform was the rise in electricity tariffs, which more than doubled in five years. And if for the population its cost is set by the state and is still kept at a relatively low level, then industrial enterprises sometimes pay more than their European competitors. By 2012, the average prices for industrial consumers in Russia came close to the American level (Fig. 6) - despite the fact that before the reform they were more than two times lower.
Figure: 6. Average electricity prices for industrial consumers
in Russia and the USA, in US cents per 1 kWh
Since 2002, prices for industry have increased 2.7 times, which deprived the domestic economy of one of the most important competitive advantages- lower electricity costs compared to other developed countries. The unpredictable rise in the cost of electricity has called into question Russia's competitiveness in the global market. So, the profitability of energy-intensive industries has noticeably decreased: if, for example, in metallurgy in 2008 it was 21 - 32%, then in 2012 - 6-13%, which is even lower than in the crisis of 2009.
The competition on which such hopes were pinned did not justify itself. Despite the creation of a wholesale electricity market in Russia and the refusal to regulate prices for industrial consumers, tariffs continue to rise, and the quality of services provided by the industry remains at a low level. The lack of free choice of supplier is especially noticeable.
The situation with the connection of new consumers, primarily industrial ones, has sharply deteriorated. According to the Institute for Problems of Natural Monopolies, the unit cost of connection per 1 kW of capacity was $ 1.5 thousand in 2010, while in other countries connection is either free at all or costs from $ 50 to $ 200. and the complexity of connecting new consumers to the grid has become a huge problem. This process takes on average more than nine months. According to some Russian experts, this factor is one of the main barriers hindering the development of small and medium-sized businesses in Russia.
Finally, investments in the Russian energy sector have not been received in the required amount. The investment obligations assumed by the new owners of OGK and TGK have not been fulfilled. According to Rosstat, in 2009 (that is, after the completion of the reform), 1.9 million kW of new capacities were put into operation. This is lower than in 2005 (2.2 million kW), significantly lower than in 1990 (3.7 million kW), and even more so than in 1985 (9 million kW). In 2011, the indicators of capacity commissioning decreased and amounted to 1.5 million kW. The figures for individual five-year periods testify even more eloquently (Table 1).
Table 1. Commissioning of new capacities in the electric power industry by five years, million kW
|
1981 - 1985 |
1986 - 1990's |
2001 - 2005 years |
2006 - 2010 |
|
30,8 |
21,0 |
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